Ammonia (liquid, aqueous): properties and applications
Ammonia (NH₃) is the simplest chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen and one of the most large-tonnage products of the modern chemical industry. Under normal conditions, it is a colourless gas with a pungent characteristic odour, which easily liquefies upon pressure increase or cooling. Thanks to its unique combination of physicochemical properties, availability of feedstock and breadth of applications, ammonia occupies a central place in the global economy, being the basis for the production of nitrogen fertilizers, explosives, polymers and a promising energy carrier.
Physicochemical Properties
The ammonia molecule has the shape of a regular pyramid with the nitrogen atom at the apex. N-H bonds are polar, with a bond energy of 389.4 kJ/mol. The nitrogen atom has a lone pair of electrons, which determines ammonia's ability to form donor-acceptor and hydrogen bonds.
Gaseous ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent odour. Its melting point is minus 77.7 °C, and its boiling point is minus 33.35 °C. The density of gaseous NH₃ at 0 °C and 0.1 MPa is 0.7714 kg/m³. A dry mixture of ammonia with air (15.5-28% by mass NH₃) can explode.
Liquid ammonia is a colourless, highly refractive liquid and a good solvent for many organic and inorganic compounds. Liquid ammonia is practically non-conductive. A pressure of 10 bar at room temperature is sufficient to liquefy ammonia for transportation purposes. The vaporisation of liquid ammonia requires significant energy (233 kJ/mol), which is utilised in refrigeration installations.
Aqueous ammonia (ammonia water) is a solution of ammonia in water, a colourless liquid with an ammonia odour. Ammonia is readily soluble in water: solubility at 20 °C is 33.1% by mass, at 0 °C — 45%. A solution containing 10% by mass NH₃ has the trade name "spirit of hartshorn". In aqueous solution, ammonia is partially ionised into NH₄⁺ and OH⁻, which accounts for the alkaline reaction of the solution (pK 9.247).
Chemical Properties
Ammonia is highly reactive. Typical for it are addition reactions, in particular of a proton upon interaction with acids. As a result, ammonium salts are formed, which are similar in many properties to alkali metal salts. Ammonia is a Lewis base, adding not only H⁺ but also other electron acceptors. By the action of NH₃ on simple or complex metal salts, ammines are obtained. Alkali and alkaline earth metals form amides with NH₃. When heated in an ammonia atmosphere, many metals and non-metals form nitrides.
Production Technology
Industrial ammonia production is based on direct synthesis from nitrogen and hydrogen (the Haber-Bosch process). The feedstock for hydrogen production is natural gas, coal or petroleum fractions. Nitrogen is obtained from air. Syngas (a mixture of N₂ and H₂ in a 1:3 ratio) is compressed to a pressure of 15-30 MPa and fed into an ammonia synthesis reactor, where at a temperature of 400-500 °C over an iron catalyst, the reaction to form NH₃ takes place.
Global Production and Market
The global ammonia market demonstrates steady growth. In 2025, the market was valued at USD 172.31 billion, and in 2026 it is estimated at USD 185.41 billion. By 2034, growth to USD 333.14 billion is projected at a CAGR of 7.6%. According to other estimates, the market will grow from USD 85 billion in 2025 to USD 91.13 billion in 2026 at a CAGR of 7.2%.
In physical terms, the ammonia market volume in 2025 was 193.69 million tonnes, estimated at 197.35 million tonnes in 2026, and projected to reach 216.72 million tonnes by 2031 at a CAGR of 1.89%. Liquid ammonia accounts for 91.28% of global volume, reflecting established supply logistics.
The Asia-Pacific region is the largest ammonia market. China, India and Indonesia are actively increasing production and consumption. Governments in the region are linking subsidies to carbon intensity, stimulating the adoption of green ammonia. Key market drivers are growing fertilizer demand, the development of hydrogen energy and the use of ammonia as marine fuel.
Ammonia Production in Russia
Russia is one of the world's largest ammonia producers. In 2025, ammonia production in Russia grew by 2.8% to 18.6 million tonnes. In 2026, the industry shows mixed dynamics: in January, ammonia output remained at the previous year's level at 1.7 million tonnes, but for the five months of 2026, production decreased by 7.5% compared to the same period in 2025.
The largest ammonia producers in Russia are Acron, PhosAgro, EuroChem, Togliattiazot and others. In 2025, Acron completed a project to increase ammonia output at its Ammonia-3 unit to 2,300 tonnes per day, raising the annual product output to 830,000 tonnes. The company's total production reached 2.4 million tonnes per year.
Applications
Fertilizer production. The main use of ammonia — about 89.5% of global consumption. Ammonia serves as a feedstock for the production of ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, ammophos, carbamide (urea) and other nitrogen fertilizers. Ammonia water is used as a basic and pre-sowing fertilizer for all agricultural crops, as well as for feed ammoniation in livestock farming.
Chemical industry. Ammonia is used to produce nitric acid, explosives, synthetic fibres (nylon), plastics, dyes and pharmaceuticals.
Refrigeration. Liquid ammonia (refrigerant R717) is widely used in industrial refrigeration installations, including large warehouses, food production facilities and ice arenas.
Energy. Ammonia is considered a promising energy carrier and marine fuel. It has high volumetric energy density and does not require cryogenic storage systems, making it attractive for maritime transport. The International Maritime Organization is stimulating the shipping industry's transition to low-carbon fuels.
Other applications. Ammonia is used in the textile industry, in pulp and paper production, in mining (metal leaching), and as a reagent for flue gas cleaning.
Safety and Storage
Ammonia is a toxic, flammable and corrosive substance requiring strict safety measures. Anhydrous ammonia is transported and stored under pressure. The main hazards to personnel are inhalation of vapours and contact of liquid and vapour with skin and eyes. Liquid ammonia causes severe burns due to its caustic action and low temperature. Gaseous ammonia is a strong irritant and can damage the eyes and respiratory tract. The threshold limit value (TLV) is 50 ppm. Flammability limits in air are 16-27 vol.%, and the autoignition temperature is 924.3 K.
Cylinders and non-refrigerated tanks are used for ammonia storage. Storage and transfer must be carried out in well-ventilated areas free from oxidisers, flammable materials, excessive heat and sparks. Overfilling of containers must be prevented. Ammonia does not corrode iron, steel or aluminium but is incompatible with copper, zinc and their alloys.
Conclusion
Ammonia remains one of the most important products of the global chemical industry, providing the production of nitrogen fertilizers, explosives, polymers and refrigeration equipment. Growing food demand, the development of hydrogen energy and the shipping industry's transition to low-carbon fuels are forming new directions for ammonia consumption. Russia, possessing significant production capacities and implementing modernisation projects, maintains its position as one of the leading players in the global ammonia market. The development of green and blue ammonia technologies opens new prospects for this strategically important product.