Activated carbon: properties and applications
Activated carbon (activated charcoal, carbolene) is a porous carbonaceous material produced from various carbon-containing organic raw materials. It is one of the most effective and widely used adsorbents, without which modern water treatment, gas purification, food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries would be inconceivable. The distinctive feature of activated carbon is its highly developed porous structure with an enormous specific surface area reaching 650–2000 m²/g.
Raw Materials and Production Technologies
The raw material base for activated carbon production includes several main groups. Traditionally, coal, wood, charcoal, coconut shell, petroleum coke, peat and lignite are used. In Russia, the use of agricultural waste and municipal solid waste is becoming increasingly widespread.
The production process of activated carbon consists of two key stages: carbonisation (charring) of the raw material at 400–600 °C without air access and activation, during which the porous structure is formed. Two fundamentally different activation methods are used. Physical (steam) activation is carried out by treating the carbonised material with steam, carbon dioxide or air at 800–1000 °C. Chemical activation involves impregnating the raw material with chemical reagents (KOH, NaOH, H₂SO₄, ZnCl₂, H₃PO₄) followed by carbonisation at lower temperatures. Physical activation remains preferable in developing sustainable and environmentally friendly technologies for converting waste into high-performance sorbents.
Forms and Grades
Activated carbon is produced in several physical forms. Powdered activated carbon (PAC) has a particle size of less than 0.18 mm and is used primarily in batch water treatment processes. Granular activated carbon (GAC) with a particle size of 0.2–5 mm is used in fixed-bed filters. Extruded (pelletised) carbon is produced by extrusion with binders, giving the granules a cylindrical shape and increased strength. Activated carbon fibre (ACF) and activated carbon cloth (ACC) also exist.
In Russia, requirements for activated carbons are regulated by a system of state standards. GOST 6217-74 applies to wood crushed activated carbon produced from grade A charcoal by treatment with steam at temperatures above 800 °C. The standard establishes four grades: BAU-A — for liquor production and adsorption from solutions and aqueous media; BAU-Ats — for filling acetylene cylinders; DAK — for purifying steam condensate from oil and other impurities; BAU-MF — for adsorption from aqueous media in filter installations.
GOST 20464-75 establishes requirements for activated carbon AG-3, produced from coal semi-coke dust, coal and resin by granulation followed by steam-gas activation. AG-3 carbon is intended for adsorption from gaseous and liquid media, including drinking water purification. Bulk density is 400–550 g/dm³, total pore volume by water is at least 0.8 cm³/g, and dynamic benzene activity is at least 40 minutes.
GOST 23998-80 applies to granular activated carbon AG-2, produced from coal dust and resin. AG-2 carbon is intended for individual respiratory protection equipment, as well as for the manufacture of absorbers and catalysts.
Properties and Quality Assessment Methods
The key indicator of activated carbon quality is sorption capacity, determined by iodine number and methylene blue adsorption. The iodine number (according to GOST 6217-74) characterises the microporosity of the carbon and is determined by the amount of iodine adsorbed from an aqueous solution per 1 g of carbon. Methylene blue adsorption (according to GOST 32423-2013) reflects the ability of carbon to absorb larger molecules and is used to assess the development of the mesoporous structure.
Bulk density is measured according to GOST 7098-73 as the ratio of carbon mass to the volume it occupies in a loose state. Abrasion strength is determined according to GOST 6217-74 by testing a sample in a drum with controlled rotation, which allows evaluating the resistance of granules to destruction during transportation and operation. Ash content (according to GOST 11022-95) characterises the content of inorganic mineral impurities and directly affects sorption capacity.
Applications
Drinking water purification and water treatment. This is the largest consumption area for activated carbon. Carbon effectively removes chlorine, organochlorine compounds, pesticides, herbicides, petroleum products, heavy metals (cadmium, mercury), natural organic matter and synthetic organic compounds, including benzo(a)pyrene, dioxins and radionuclides from water.
Wastewater treatment. Activated carbon is used for treating industrial and municipal wastewater, removing organic pollutants, dyes and petroleum products.
Gas and air purification. Carbon is used for removing mercury and dioxins from flue gases, removing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrogen sulphide and other harmful gases. In 2024, EU BAT conclusions tightened mercury limits for large combustion plants, leading to a doubling or tripling of powdered activated carbon injection rates.
Food industry. Activated carbon is used for purifying sugar syrups, deodorising fats and oils, removing dyes and impurities from beverages. Grade BAU-A is used for conditioning water-alcohol solutions in the liquor industry.
Pharmaceuticals. Carbon is used for purifying medicines, removing impurities and decolourising solutions.
Respiratory protection. Grades AG-2 and AG-3 are used in filtering gas masks and respirators for purifying air from harmful substances.
Solvent recovery. Activated carbon is used for capturing and returning organic solvents in industrial processes.
Other applications. Carbon is used for purifying steam condensate (grade DAK), gold mining, catalyst production, automotive air purification systems, household water filters and drinking water purification systems in offices and residential buildings.
Global Market
Estimates of the global activated carbon market volume vary depending on the methodology. According to The Business Research Company, the market was valued at USD 8.07 billion in 2025, projected to reach USD 9.26 billion in 2026 and USD 15.71 billion by 2030 at a CAGR of 14.1%. According to Straits Research, the market was valued at USD 5.0 billion in 2025, USD 5.43 billion in 2026, and is projected to reach USD 10.42 billion by 2034 at a CAGR of 8.5%. According to Fortune Business Insights, the market was valued at USD 5.62 billion in 2025, USD 6.04 billion in 2026, and is projected to reach USD 11.9 billion by 2034 at a CAGR of 8.8%.
The Asia-Pacific region dominates the global market with a 42.5–48% share in 2025, driven by rapid industrialisation and strict environmental requirements. North America is the fastest-growing region with a CAGR of about 6%. Key market growth drivers are growing concerns about water and air pollution, tightening emission standards, expanding applications in pharmaceuticals and food processing, and growing demand for air and water purification systems in the household segment.
Main trends include the growing use of reactivated carbon within the circular economy, increasing share of coconut shell carbon for removing short-chain PFAS, development of specialised sorbents for emerging pollutants (PFAS, microplastics), and introduction of technologies for converting waste into carbon materials. The largest manufacturers are Calgon Carbon Corporation, Chemviron, Cabot Corp., CarboTech and others.
Production in Russia
The Russian activated carbon market is represented by several producers. LLC Aktiv Carbon produces activated carbons at a production site in the Kostroma region. In the Altai region, a project is being implemented in the Shipunovsky district to produce activated carbon from agricultural waste with a capacity of more than 8 tonnes per day. Waste-free technologies for producing granular activated carbon from fine coal dust and organic waste are being developed.
Safety and Storage
Activated carbon is non-flammable and non-explosive. However, when working with powdered carbon, personal protective equipment must be used: respirators, protective goggles and protective clothing, as prolonged exposure to dust causes irritation of mucous membranes. Storage is carried out in dry, well-ventilated areas, in hermetically sealed containers, away from moisture and heat sources. Spent activated carbon can be regenerated by thermal treatment or steam purging, which restores its adsorption capacity.
Conclusion
Activated carbon remains one of the key products of the global chemical industry, providing drinking water and wastewater purification, removal of harmful gases and vapours from air, solvent recovery and many other processes. Growing demand for clean water and air, tightening environmental standards, and expanding applications in pharmaceuticals and food processing create sustained demand for this multifunctional adsorbent. China, the USA and European countries remain the leading players in the global activated carbon market, and the expansion of production in Russia and the introduction of waste-to-carbon technologies determine the industry's further prospects.